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Wednesday, 20 June 2007, 10:29 GMT 11:29 UK
‘Earliest gunshot victim’ found
One of the first people thought to have been killed by gunfire in the Americas has been found in a burial plot near Lima in Peru, scientists have said.
A skull bearing a gunshot hole was discovered amongst the remains of 72 bodies in a suburb of the capital.
Archaeologists believe the bodies were those of ancient Incas killed by Spanish conquistadors 500 years ago.
Forensics experts using a powerful scanning microscope later found fragments of metal on the skull.
“There may have been Incas and other native people killed by Europeans before him, but this is our oldest example so far,” Peruvian archaeologist Guillermo Cock, who led the excavations in Lima, is quoted as saying by the Washington Post newspaper.
“We didn’t expect it. We saw this skull and saw the almost round hole and thought people must have been shooting around here recently,” Mr Cock, whose research is funded by National Geographic, said.
One of the forensics experts who analysed the skull said his team had tried to rule out all other possible causes of the hole, such as a rock from a slingshot, a spear or a sledgehammer.
“We all thought it was a million-to-one chance that we would find any traces of metal on a skull that old, but it was worth a try,” said Al Harper, director of the Henry C Lee Institute of Forensic Science in West Haven, Connecticut, in the US.
Indigenous support
The skull is thought to have belonged to an Inca man who was involved in the 1536 siege of Lima.
The bodies seemed to have been buried hastily in shallow graves instead of being wrapped and put in the ground in the traditional Inca way.
“Some of the bodies also showed signs of terrible violence,” Mr Cock said.
“They had been hacked, torn, impaled – injuries that looked as if they had been caused by iron weapons – and several had injuries on their heads and faces that looked as if they were caused by gunshots.”
Mr Cock said the nature of the injuries found on the bodies – made with indigenous weapons such as stone axes and arrows – indicated that the conquistadors would have had some kind of native support to help in their conquest.
“That really confirms… native support for the conquerors was very important.
“The chronicles do not acknowledge the participation of the natives… [they] tell you that a couple of dozen cavalry men defeated the Inca troops in Lima.”
***This this article was published, archeologists have learned more about this Inca warrior. Can you find any additional details about this archeological discovery?
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Here are a few resources that can help you in your study of the U.S. Constitution. Can you add another one?
Resources on the Constitutional Convention and the U.S. Constitutions
#1: http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/charters_of_freedom_6.html
#2: http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/data/constitution/preamble/
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History of the 50 States Project
The U.S. mint has been commissioned to issue a distinctive 25 cent coin for each of the 50 states. The front of each quarter will have the traditional image of George Washington, but the reverse side will have a design distinctive to each individual state. Five different quarters will be issued each year between 1999 and 2008.
The basic resource for this on-going project is the website Coin Facts (http://www.coinfacts.com/quarter_dollars/50_states_quarters/50_states_quarters.htm), specifically the portion dealing with the current 25 cent piece.
The task of this project is to complete the following tasks:
1. Create notes that decode, or explain, the symbols on the back of each quarter.
2. Write a paragraph that uses these symbols teaches us about the history of each state.
For example, here is how you would complete the tasks for the California quarter:
Notes:
1. “California 1850”: the year California became a state.
2. “a man with a walking stick”: this is John Muir, a famous conservationist.
3. “a bird in flight”: the California condor, a specie threatened by extinction
4. “a mountain” and “Yosemite Valley”: this is Halfdome Peak, the symbol of Yosemite Valley. Yosemite was saved as a national park by John Muir.
5. “2005”: the year this coin was minted.
Paragraph:
The “California quarter” was issued in 2005. On the back of the quarter there are a number of symbols that tell us something about California’s history. The date “1850” tells us when California became a state. Other symbols show California’s commitment to saving the environment. These symbols include the conservationist John Muir, the California condor, and Yosemite Valley. Taken together, they show that Californians have worked in both the past and the present to preserve animals and places for future generations.
Parts of the project:
Part I. The original 13 states
Part II. The First 3 “new states” added under the Constitution
Part III. States from the old Northwest and Southwest Territories (warning: 2 states from this
group are unavailable on the current data base. Extra credit will be given if you can
identify and decode these two quarters.)
Part IV. The first states from west of the Mississippi River
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Here are some summary notes for the first four chapters of Rise to Rebellion:
Rise to Rebellion
Part I. The Sentry (pages 3 to 12)
1. Foreshadowing: references to increasing tension and conflict between Bostonians and British soldiers.
2. Who is Hugh White? Why did the author select this character to begin this story?
3. What did you learn from reading this selection?
Part II Adams (pages 13 to 24)
A.
1. Introduction to John Adams
2. The aftermath of the violence is described from his point of view.
3. Introduction to Abagail Adams, and the pair she and John have formed.
4. How does Adams view “the law”?
5. Notice Adams’ insistence on facts, distrust of rumors.
B.
1. Adams agrees to present Captain Preston. Why?
2. Introduction to Sam Adams.
3. Why is Sam “happy” about the riot?
4. What observation does Sam make about his cousin John?
5. What recent events does Sam cite to make his “history lesson”?
6. Paraphrase Sam’s description of the colonial point of view.
7. How are John and Sam different?
Part III Gage (page 25 to 34)
1. Introduction to Thomas Gage, and his perspective on life.
2. Social roles: compare/contrast Thomas and Margaret Gage vs. John and Abagail Adams.
3. Army behavior vs. civilian behavior.
Part IV Franklin (page 34 to 48)
A.
1. Franklin the eccentric.
2. Why is Franklin in London? How long has he been there?
3. Describe Franklin’s relationship with
a. Mrs. Stevenson
b. Deborah, his wife
c. His children
B.
1. Insight into Franklin’s thinking as he almost invents sunglasses.
C.
1. Who is Samuel Johnson?
2, How old is Samuel Johnson? Does this seem to have an affect on how he
thinks?
3. Johnson gives the British point of view of the situation in America. Paraphrase
it.
4. How does Franklin react to his conversation with Johnson?
In light of recent events, here’s some information I gathered on the history of wildfires. Tragedies such as our most recent wildfire bring up many topics can give some insight to, but don’t expect any easy answers.
Where do the rights of the individual stop, and rights of the group take precedent? An individual homeowner refusing to evacuate their home versus fire and police risking their own lives to evacuate the public from dangerous areas?
Separation of powers between the different levels of government? Should the local fire chief have the authority to call in a U.S. military helicopter without permission from the California state fire co-ordinator? If we do permit this, who has to settle any lawsuits if something goes wrong? The city? The state? The U.S. government?
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SanDiegoFires
Disaster, insurance folks double damage estimate
By Pauline Repard
UNION-TRIBUNE STAFF WRITER
October 30, 2007
As firefighters nearly corraled the blazes that have devastated more than 368,000 acres of the county, authorities sifted through ashes yesterday and interviewed witnesses to determine how each fire started.
As of last night, all but one wildfire remained under investigation.
Authorities have located the exact power pole, in the 1500 block of Rice Canyon in eastern Fallbrook, where the 9,500-acre Rice Canyon fire began.
Together, the Poomacha, Rice Canyon, Witch Creek and Harris fires destroyed 1,595 homes, according to Cal Fire totals.
The financial tally of destruction across the region is still mounting. Disaster and insurance experts have doubled their estimates of property damage – from $1 billion last week to $2 billion yesterday.
Those costs will include $893 million in lost productivity, $500 million in damage to homes and $400 million in lost furnishings, appliances, vehicles, clothing and other possessions, the San Diego Institute for Policy Research projected yesterday.
The institute estimated $200 million in damage to other structures and $100 million for supplies and emergency workers’ overtime pay.
Most of the property losses will be covered by insurance, the institute said.
Cal Fire said firefighting costs countywide since Oct. 21 have reached $38 million. That bill could rise further because the battle against the flames hasn’t ended. As of last night, a few hot spots remained near Palomar Mountain in North County.
Fire officials aren’t expecting major flare-ups because the weather is forecast to stay cool and misty through tomorrow.
But by late Thursday or early Friday, a moderate Santa Ana should develop and cause humidity levels to drop again, the National Weather Service said. The winds could include gusts of up to 50 mph in canyons and passes.
Cal Fire is keeping some firefighters and resources in Southern California in anticipation of the coming Santa Anas.
Since Oct. 21, the Witch Creek fire – the largest conflagration – has burned nearly 198,000 acres from near Julian to Rancho Santa Fe. The fire is 95 percent contained and is expected to be fully controlled by Saturday.
Containment means firefighters have encircled a fire, minimizing its risk of spreading. Controlled means a fire is extinguished.
Near the Witch Creek inferno, the Poomacha fire started in Pauma Valley and has charred almost 50,000 acres. It is 70 percent contained, with full control expected by Nov. 5.
In South County, the Harris fire, which began in Potrero, is 85 percent contained at 90,440 acres. Full containment is expected Wednesday and full control on Saturday.
The Rice Canyon fire, which broke out east of Fallbrook, was fully contained Sunday at 9,472 acres. Full control is predicted for Nov. 5.
The Horno fire on Camp Pendleton is fully contained at 21,004 acres, with full control expected Thursday.
In the nearby Fallbrook area, the Rice Canyon fire scorched about 20,000 avocado trees. The California Avocado Industry Association yesterday estimated that as much as 20 percent of San Diego County’s avocado crop was destroyed last week.
Countywide, many schools reopened yesterday after an even more widespread and extended shutdown than in the 2003 Cedar fire. All campuses are expected to resume classes by Wednesday.
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Expository Writing
Writing The Essay
Planning
Revising
Drafting
Essay Structure
Drafting Paragraphs
(Hacker, Diane. A writers’ Reference 3rd edition. Bedford Books. Boston, 1995.)
A. PLANNING
I. Assess the writing situation
a. Subject – is it worth writing about, is it too broad or too narrow, and is it detailed enough
b. Sources of information – Where is the information coming from? Is it personal experiences, from observation, interviews, or from documentation/reading.
c. Purpose – Why are you writing? To inform, persuade, entertain, is it a call to action, or a combination of all.
d. Audience – Who is the audience, how well are they informed on the subject, what do they need to learn, and what is your relationship to them?
e. Length – Are there any specifications, if not what is appropriate?
f. Document design – Are there any specifications, do you have any guidelines or examples?
g. Deadline – When is the deadline? Make sure that you plan for all the stages, including typing, proofreading, and the final.
II. Experiment with techniques for exploring ideas.
Don’t just plunge in, explore more than one technique, such as listing, clustering, questions, and freewriting.
a. Listing – list ideas, brainstorm
b. Clustering and branching – highlight the relationships among ideas Ex. Teaching staff–regular
—-part-time—-college professors
—–local talent————artists
————musicians ————judges and politicians
c. Asking questions – who, what, where, when, why and how
d. Freewriting – nonstop writing, everything that you know about subject, set aside ten minutes to do this.
III. Settle on a tentative focus
Ways to focus on the material. Get a tentative central idea, thesis sentence or overriding purpose.
IV. Sketch a tentative plan/informal outline
B. DRAFTING
MAKE SURE TO KEEP YOUR PLANNING MATERIAL CLOSE AT HAND
I. Draft an introductory paragraph of 50-100 words. These should be sentences to engage the reader and end with a statement of your main point. The introduction should include one of the following: startling statistic or unusual fact, vivid example, description, paradoxical statement, quote or bit of dialogue, question, analogy, joke or anecdote.
II. Characteristics of an effective thesis – it is limited, sharply focused, and not too vague.
III. Draft the body – Keep the focus in mind, what does the thesis promise. Compose your preliminary plan and block out the paragraphs accordingly.
IV. Draft the conclusion – Echo the main idea without repeating it, summarize the main point, pose a question for future study, offer advice, or propose a course of action. Do not introduce new ideas. End crisply and on a positive note.
C. DRAFTING PARAGRAPHS
CLUSTERS OF INFORMATION SUPPORTING THE ESSAYS MAIN POINT. THE PARAGRAPHS SHOULD BE CLEARLY
FOCUSED, ARRANGED LOGICALLY, WELL DEVELOPED, ORGANIZED, COHERENT, AND NOT TOO SHORT OR TOO
LONG.
I. Focus on a main point – The paragraphs are all unified around a main point. All the sentences in the paragraph are related to that point.
a. State the main point in the topic sentence, and this is what is expected as the reader continues on.
b. Sticking to the main point. Sentences that do not support the main point are to be deleted or moved elsewhere in writing.
II. Develop the main point – Don’t use a series of brief paragraphs, develop them into larger more detailed ones.
III. Choose a suitable pattern of organization.
“Methods of Development”
a. Examples and Illustrations – reader asks “for example”, illustrations, extended examples
b. Narration – tells a story or part of a story, recounts
c. Description – sketches portrait of a person, place or thing by using concrete and specific details that appeal to one or more senses (sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch)
d. Process – chronological order, step by step
e. Comparison and contrast – compare- – comparison two subjects similarities and consideration of differences, contrast- – focus on differences only
f. Analogy – the comparison of items that appear to have little in common
g. Cause and effect – effect to causes or causes to effects
h. Classification and division – class- – regrouping items into categories according to consistent principle, division- – takes one item and divides it into parts according to consistent principles
i. Definition – puts a word or concept into a general class and provides enough detail to distinguish it from other members in the same class.
IV. Make paragraphs coherent. Flow one to the next without bumps, or shifts. Tie the old information to the new information.
a. Link ideas clearly- learn the paragraphs main point and the details that link to it
Put the paragraphs in the essay in a clear hierarchy
b. Do not use repeating key words, use a variation of the word
c. Use parallel structure- the same point of view and verb tenses throughout, bind series of sentences which express the same information together
d. Maintain consistency
e. Provide transitions- to show addition(and, also), to give examples(ex., for instance), to compare(also, similarly), to contrast(but, yet), to summarize or conclude(that is, to sum up), to show time(after, next,
later), to show place or directions(above, below, beyond), to indicate logical relationships(if, so, thus)
V. If necessary adjust paragraph length. 100-200 words for the body and the introduction and conclusion shorter.
a. Reasons to begin a new paragraph. Introduction or conclusion, shift to new idea, shift in time or place, to emphasize a point, to highlight contrast, to provide reader with a needed pause, a change in speakers.
b. Reasons for combining paragraphs. To clarify organization, to connect ideas, or to bind text that looks choppy.
D. REVISING
LOOK AT FOCUS, ORGANIZATION, PARAGRAPHING, CONTENT, AND OVERALL STRATEGY.
I. Make global revisions- whole paragraphs may be dropped and others added, review from the audiences’ perspective
a. Purpose and audience- does it accomplish its purpose and is it appropriate for the audience
b. Focus- do the introduction and conclusion focus clearly on main point
c. Organization and paragraphing- can readers follow the overall structure, are the ideas ordered effectively, do the paragraphs make sense, and are any of the paragraphs too long or too short for easy reading
d. Content- is the supporting material persuasive, which ideas need further development, are the parts proportioned sensibly, where might there be deleted material
II. Revise and edit sentences- style and clarity, try to avoid wordiness and reliance of linking with the word and
EXAMPLE
Original Paragraph
Finally, we decided that perhaps our dream needed some prompting, and we visited a fertility doctor and began the expensive, time consuming round of procedure that held out the promise of fulfilling our dream. All this was to no avail, and as we approached the sixth year of our marriage we had reached the point where we couldn’t even discuss our childlessness without becoming very depressed. We questioned why this had happened to us? Why had we been singled out for this major disappointment?
Revised Paragraph
Finally, deciding that perhaps our dream needed prompting, we visited a fertility doctor and began the expensive, time-consuming round of procedures that held out some promise of our dreams fulfillment. Our efforts, however, were to no avail. As we approached the sixth year of our marriage we could no longer even discuss our childlessness without becoming very depressed. We questioned why this had happened to us. Why had we been singled out for such a major disappointment?
III. Proofread the final manuscript. Search for misspellings, typographical errors, and omitted words or word endings. Proofread out loud. Check that the conclusion fulfills the promise made in the introduction, and make sure that each paragraph is linked.
E. ESSAY STRUCTURE
I. Introduction—-the topic sentence goes here with general statements and the thesis statement
II. Body—-the body is the longest part of the essay and can contain as many paragraphs as is needed to support the controlling ideas of your thesis statement
A. Paragraph 1- topic sentence
1. Support statements
2. Support statements
3. Support statements–concluding sentence
B. Paragraph 2 – topic sentence
1. Support statements
2. Support statements
3. Support statements–concluding sentence
C. Paragraph 3 – topic sentence
1. Support statements
2. Support statements
3. Support statements–concluding sentence
III. Conclusion—-restatement or summary of the main points, final comment, and concluding sentence
Quartz/Gold mass, Sonora.CA
General comments for 8/13/07
Today was a day of surprises.
Last night there was a noticeable amount of smoke in the air. It got in the way of seeing the meteor shower to some degree. It turns out the source of the smoke was the fire that has been burning NE of Santa Barbara. Surprising how the air currents move things around
While I was taking in the sunrise, one of the sights I got to enjoy was the unusual cloud patterns the updrafts on the east side create. One was backlit in such a way it looked like the letter “Q”.
Rock Creek must be an example of a mircro-climate. It was the only place where I found any abundance of wildflowers. The trip from Rock Creek to Sonora Pass was very sparse and dry. Not much from Sonora Pass to Jamestown either.
Time for the trip was about 8 hours, though it must be taken with the understanding that there were lots of breaks along the way.
Life is rather dead here in Jamestown. The Jamestown Hotel is up for sale. The restaurant and bar are closed. I wonder what the future holds for this place?
Wildflower in Rock Creek Canyon:
1. Hooker’s primrose
2. Sticky poppy
3. Wandering daisy
4. Skyrocket/scarlet gillia
5. Gentian
6. Paintbrush
7. Yarrow
8. Common monkeyflower
9. Monk’s hood
10. Lupine
11. Alpine goldenrod
12. Pennyroyal
Bishop Canyon, eastern Sierra
Gentian, Rock Creek Canyon
McGee Canyon, eastern Sierra
8/15/07
Quartz/Gold sample, Sonora, CA
Summary of the prospecting portion of the trip:
Josh Vick has had a very busy summer season. It turns out his operation was featured on the Travel Channel, and since then he has had almost more business than he can handle. For example, on my first day there were nine other people, and on the second day there were ten. We were in some productive areas, and both groups were pretty compatable so everyone got some decent gold. On the second Josh felt we were working some ground that had not been worked in a very long time, if ever. We found several “clinker” sized pieces, enough for everyone to get at least one. Josh also took care of me by giving me some samples of gold embedded in native rock, and a baggie of crusted granite ore.
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1. How is a 8th grader’s use of history different from an adult’s?
2. Why study history?
3. Why is there “government”?
4. Go to “Humanities Resource Page”. Study one of the maps, and describe
what information you can see on the map.
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